Key messages
- Perceived fairness is a central determinant of acceptance or resistance to climate policies. Resistance to climate policies is shaped by structural factors, including socio-economic conditions and cultural identities. But policy design aspects that are sensitive to perceptions of fairness can increase the public’s acceptance of the measures proposed. Overcoming resistance requires an understanding of the political economy and the interests of different groups.
- Inclusive and bottom-up processes of decision-making also help to overcome resistance. Success depends on developing policies that balance the citizens’ and industries’ interests while considering specific socio-economic fragilities.
- Ignoring or disregarding citizens’ needs, will continue to foment resistance that hinder effective climate policies. Failing to understand motives, ignoring the broad spectrum between acceptance and resistance, or conflating all forms of political opposition with crude climate denial is misguided and unhelpful.
A successful climate transition, in which private consumption and local adaptation are targeted, will need policies that do not conflict with the values and sentiments of impacted populations. Without public support, resistance will hamper urgent climate action. Failure to understand resistance will result in backlash, political opposition, social mobilisation and even civil unrest.
There is a growing evidence base on acceptance and resistance to climate policies showing multiple social factors that shape these reactions, including individual beliefs, social norms, cultural identities, and economic conditions, as well as specific types of policy design. Country-specific political-economic factors are also crucial elements for the success of climate policies. Fairness is a central determinant of acceptance and resistance: One review found perceptions of fairness to be the strongest determinant out of 15 factors evaluated. Perceived unfair distribution of economic costs, job security, cultural identity and social justice concerns resulting from climate policy can result in resistance (Figure 9). Public support for low-carbon energy transitions will always be challenged as long as corruption and unfair practices remain unaddressed. New taxes and the removal of subsidies often face resistance. Public support for such policies dwindles further when concerns about distribution and income inequality are high, as people are wary of unfairly bearing additional economic costs. But if the revenues or public savings are used for improving well-being or reducing inequality or even for environmental measures, the measures can become more acceptable (Figure 9). Fairness involves the recognition of negative impact by the countries and industries. The climate transition often overlooks local needs and aspirations that will cause short-term costs for some groups. Planned relocations are an example of adaptation measures that can face strong resistance, especially when introduced without attention to the effects on social networks and livelihoods.
Motives for policy resistance can be culturally understood and depend on local needs and aspirations, yet this is often overlooked in international debates. Policies that consider the interests of influential social and industrial groups are key to reconciling success with fairness. In Indonesia, auto and motorcycle lobbying groups have prevented the withdrawal of fuel subsidies. In Ghana, fishing groups have done the same for kerosene subsidies, and labour unions have advocated for public transport fare increase exemptions. But citizens who lack political power can adopt “quiet resistance” through false compliance or foot-dragging to undermine policies they do not believe in.
Failing to understand the underlying motives and ignoring the broad spectrum between acceptance and resistance is unhelpful for implementing effective climate policies. Similarly, conflating opposition to specific policies (due the negative consequences experienced by a given constituency) with “climate change denial” are all unhelpful. Resistance is not inherently negative; it can provide a political voice to marginalised groups that lack the power to influence policy through democratic means. In countries with limited democratic processes, everyday forms of resistance can introduce alternative climate action paths and highlight local needs and aspirations often overlooked by the mainstream climate political agenda. Political resistance can be seen as another form of political participation. Recognising and using this resistance to highlight overlooked needs can lead to more effective policymaking. Without considering citizens’ needs, resistance will continue to hinder transformative climate laws and policies.
Moreover, it is worth noting that there is a “perception gap” between what most people think others are willing to sacrifice to mitigate climate change: Global studies show that nearly 70% of people are willing to allocate 1% of their income to climate action, and almost 90% want more government efforts. Inclusive, democratic, bottom-up approaches and processes that involve local communities will help to overcome resistance. Success depends on policymakers balancing social and industrial interests while considering specific socioeconomic fragilities derived from past economic and political reforms.
Policy implications
- Highlighting concrete processes for inclusive and participatory mechanisms, such as climate citizen assemblies, involving experts and diverse stakeholders, can increase the legitimacy and acceptability of climate policies. A focus on identifying and agreeing on fair pathways to the energy transition can foster effective collaboration and grant legitimacy to mitigation and adaptation policies.
- Policy design aspects can also shape the level of acceptability. Clearly communicated plans about how the revenue or savings (from a new tax or a removed subsidy) will be used for the public’s benefit can make the policy more acceptable. Other aspects of policy design that can be deployed for increasing acceptability include packaging multiple policy instruments, and carefully sequencing and timing the policy’s deployment. Tailored approaches that recognise specific needs and realities, and acknowledge diverse concerns, are needed to anticipate and overcome resistance from cultural and local factors.
- Developing and socialising economic plans to compensate for the losses that some will face (e.g., energy or transport costs) can be a crucial component for politically viable transition strategies. This might include the promotion of alternative employment opportunities and expanded safety nets.
- Visible actions to combat corruption and regulatory capture could contribute to raising perceptions of a fairer and more transparent environment.
The interaction between political-economic contexts and policy designs can either lead to exclusion, injustice and vulnerability – resulting in popular resistance – or to inclusion, fairness and development – resulting in popular acceptance.
